Style: Scheme

GUIDE TO RHETORICAL SCHEMES

Rhetorical Schemes
Rhetorical schemes are language devices playing with the order and placement of words or sounds (as opposed to rhetorical tropes, which play with the sense and meaning of words).

Phrase – a phrase is a grammatical combination of words that is missing a subject or predicate (examples would be verb phrases, participial phrases, prepositional phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases).

Clause – A clause is a combination of words that could be a sentence, except punctuation or a conjunction (coordinating or subordinating) will not allow it to stand on its own.

Sentence – A sentence is a combination of words with a subject and predicate that expresses a complete thought.


1. ANAPHORA

Definition
Repetition of beginnings (‘a’ [clause]; ‘a’ [clause]; ‘a’ [clause]).

Example
Everything is good when it leaves the hands of the Creator; everything degenerates in the hands of man. (Rousseau)

How To
Decide on a word or phrase that you would like to emphasize, and then write two or three consecutive clauses beginning with that same word or phrase.

Literary Examples
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. The Declaration of Independence

 He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution....giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world. The Declaration of Independence

 The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises,...To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes… The Constitution

 Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation? Why quit our own to stand upon foreign ground? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in the toils of European ambition, rivalship, interest, humor or caprice? Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals for the inspection and control of arms—and bring the absolute power to destroy other nations under the absolute control of all nations. Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of science instead of its terrors. Together let us explore the stars, conquer the deserts, eradicate disease, tap the ocean depths, and encourage the arts and commerce. Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah—to "undo the heavy burdens ... and to let the oppressed go free." Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy



2. ANTITHESIS

Definition
Repetition by negation (not ‘a’ but ‘b’).

Example
African Americans should be judged, not by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character. (paraphrase of MLK)

How To
Write a moral imperative that supports your position (i.e. a  “should” statement) and follow it with a negation of its opposite, like “‘a’ should be _____-ed, not [prepositional phrase] ______, but [prepositional phrase].”

Literary Examples
Yet it has gained Credit like a Charm, not only without but against the clearest Evidence. Letter from John Adams to Abigail Adams (April 14, 1776)

They [society and government] are not only different, but have different origins. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 They will mutually and naturally support each other, and on this (not on the unmeaning name of king) depends the strength of government, and the happiness of the governed. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 For the fate of Charles the first, hath only made kings more subtle—not more just. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 They have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 The government then, so far as it extends, is a complete one, and not a confederation. Anti-Federalist #1 by Publius

 For if they do not know, or are not disposed to speak the sentiments of the people, the people do not govern, but the sovereignty is in a few.  Anti-Federalist #1 by Publius

 A fire not to be quenched (i.e. party politics), it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting into a flame, lest, instead of warming, it should consume. Farewell Address by George Washington

 We observe today not a victory of party, but a celebration of freedom. Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 The rights of man come not from the generosity of the state, but from the hand of God. Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 We pledge our best efforts to help them help themselves, for whatever period is required—not because the Communists may be doing it, not because we seek their votes, but because it is right. Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 Now the trumpet summons us again—not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need; not as a call to battle, though embattled we are—but a call to bear the burden of a long twilight struggle, year in and year out, "rejoicing in hope, patient in tribulation"—a struggle against the common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself. Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. The Declaration of Independence

 Society is produced by our wants, and government by our wickedness; the former promotes our happiness positively by uniting our affections, the latter negatively by restraining our vices. Common Sense by Thomas Paine


ALLIOSIS

Definition
Presentation of alternatives (‘a’ or ‘b’).

Example
You can pass this class, or you can flip burgers for the rest of your life.

How To
Set up a choice for your audience which emphasizes the negative of rejecting your argument (i.e. “You can have ____ or ____.”)



3. ASYNDETON

Definition
The removal of typical coordinating conjunctions, like “and” (‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’).

Example
I came, I saw, I conquered (veni, vidi, vici). Julius Caesar

How To
Create a list of three items and remove the typical “and” before the last item. This is only effective when you really want to emphasize the last item, particularly if it contrasts a bit with the other items on the list.

Literary Examples
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. The Declaration of Independence

 In order to gain a clear and just idea of the design and end of government, let us suppose a small number of persons settled in some sequestered part of the earth, unconnected with the rest, they will then represent the first peopling of any country, or of the world. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate -- we can not consecrate -- we can not hallow -- this ground. The Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln

POLYSYNDETON

Definition
The addition of unnecessary coordinating conjunctions, like “and”, “or”, or “nor” (‘a’ and ‘b’ and ‘c’).

Example
When you are old and gray and full of sleep, and nodding by the fire, take down this book. Yeats

How To
Create a list of three or more items and use the conjunction “and” or “nor” between each item. This is particularly useful when you want to emphasize the vast number of items on a list.



4. EPANADOS

Definition
Repetition in reverse order (‘a’ ‘b’ ‘b’ ‘a’).

Example
If a man will begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to begin with doubts, he shall end in certainties. Bacon

How To
Pick two key words that you want to emphasize. Write a clause using those two words, and then follow it with another clause that uses the same two words, but in the opposite order.

Literary Examples
It will unavoidably happen, that in proportion as they surmount the first difficulties of emigration, which bound them together in a common cause, they will begin to relax in their duty and attachment to each other; and this remissness, will point out the necessity, of establishing some form of government to supply the defect of moral virtue. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 In this sense it is that your union ought to be considered as a main prop of your liberty, and that the love of the one ought to endear to you the preservation of the other. Farewell Address by George Washington

 And when a man seriously reflects on the idolatrous homage which is paid to the persons of Kings, he need not wonder, that the Almighty ever jealous of his honor, should disapprove of a form of government which so impiously invades the prerogative of heaven. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country. Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 Look back. Oh! my soul, look back and tremble.” The Hurricane Letter by Alexander Hamilton


EPANALEPSIS

Repetition of the beginning at the end (‘a’ ‘b’ ‘a’).

Example
Common sense is not so common. Voltaire

How To
Pick a word that you want to emphasize and use it to begin and end the same sentence.



5. EPISTROPHE

Definition
Repetition of endings, whether words, phrases, or sounds ([clause] ‘a’; [clause] ‘a’; [clause] ‘a’).

Example
Men have never been good, they are not good, they never will be good. Barth

How To
Pick a word or phrase that you want to emphasize, and then place that word or phrase at the end of two or more successive phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Literary Examples
The very idea of the power and the right of the people to establish government presupposes the duty of every individual to obey the established government. Farewell Address by George Washington

We here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain -- that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom -- and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. The Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln


RHYME

Definition
Rhyme, as the repetition of ending sounds, is just one form of epistrophe. A rhyme is an ending vowel and consonant sound combination that is repeated in two or more words. Rhyme is used in poetry to create beautiful and memorable sounds. Rhyme is used in prose to create memorable and persuasive arguments.

Examples
The days have never been when you could love me — but her whom in life you did abhor, in death you will adore. (paraphrase of Edgar Allan Poe)

Mind your Sunday clothes, and remember to blow your nose. (from Pigling Bland by Beatrix Potter)

They came to the river, they came to the bridge – they crossed it hand in hand – then over the hills and far away she danced with Pigling Bland! (ibid.)

Is this the “End of Spend”, as Time Magazine contends?

Relax, it’s FedEx! (slant rhyme)

Do the Dew! (advertisement)

“If it doesn’t fit, you must acquit.” Johnny Cochran (OJ Simpson trial)

Flick my Bic! (advertisement)

Light up the night.

A rhyme can be sublime, when used properly.

In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue.

Birds of a feather flock together.

What sobriety conceals, alcohol reveals.

Where law ends, tyranny begins. William Pitt

Justice denied anywhere diminishes justice everywhere. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Fiat justitia ruat caelum. Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, the father-in-law of Julius Caesar

Star Wars, 7-eleven, Crunch ‘n Munch, Lean Cuisine, Laffy Taffy, Reese’s Pieces, YouTube

How to: Pick a phrase that you want your audience to remember after your speech. Use that phrase to create a memorable rhyme for your audience, because rhyme’s a nice trick to make ideas stick.

Literary Example
It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world… Farewell Address by George Washington



6. ISOCOLON (PARALLELISM)

Definition
The repetition of grammatical structures (e.g. subject + verb + prepositional phrase + adverb; prepositional phrase + adverb; prepositional phrase + adverb.) It is the repetition of grammar forms, and not primarily of words, which is the essence of isocolon.

Example
The various modes of worship, which prevailed in the Roman world, were all considered by the people, as equally true; by the philosopher, as equally false; and by the magistrate, as equally useful. Gibbon

How To
Pick two or three ideas that you want to compare or contrast.  Express those ideas in two or more sentences, clauses, or phrases using the same grammar structure (e.g. subject + prepositional phrase + prepositional phrase + prepositional phrase + verb – like “So that government of the people, by the people, and for the people may not perish from this earth.” You need to know a little grammar to make this work!

Literary Examples
United, there is little we cannot do in a host of cooperative ventures. Divided, there is little we can do—for we dare not meet a powerful challenge at odds and split asunder. Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans—born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage—and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this Nation has always been committed, and to which we are committed today at home and around the world. Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 How humble, how helpless, how contemptible you now appear. The Hurricane Letter by Alexander Hamilton

 I shall neither copy their humility, nor disturb their devotion. Common Sense byThomas Paine

 Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty. Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press. The Constitution



7. ALLITERATION

Definition
Repetition of initial consonant sounds.

Example
All for which America stands is safe today because brave men and women have been ready to face the fire at freedom's front. –Ronald Reagan

How To
Repeat the initial consonant sound of two or more words in a phrase or clause that you want to emphasize.

Literary Examples
For this purpose they must all come together to deliberate, and decide. Anti-Federalist #1 by Publius Brutus

 A thousand motives will excite them thereto, the strength of one man is so unequal to his wants, and his mind so unfitted for perpetual solitude, that he is soon obliged to seek assistance and relief of another, who in his turn requires the same. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 For were the impulses of conscience clear, uniform, and irresistibly obeyed, man would need no other lawgiver… Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 If, then, the courts of justice are to be considered as the bulwarks of a limited Constitution against legislative encroachments, this consideration will afford a strong argument for the permanent tenure of judicial offices, since nothing will contribute so much as this to that independent spirit in the judges which must be essential to the faithful performance of so arduous a duty. Federalist No. 78 by Alexander Hamilton