Style: Trope

STYLE GUIDE: RHETORICAL TROPES

Definition
Rhetorical tropes expand the meaning of normal, ordinary words and phrases. They make readers think outside of the traditional literary box. They play with meaning and logic, mental pictures and reason.


1. METAPHOR

Definition
A metaphor is a comparison between two unlike things without indicating the comparison with the words like, as, or than.

Model
A good conscience is a continual Christmas. Ben Franklin

How To
1. Write a simple “is” sentence. For example, “Conscience is good.” Think of why it is good (e.g. it gives us peace and comfort).
2. Think of something else which equates in a similar way to the second part (the “is…” part) of the sentence. For example, Christmas gives us peace and comfort; a cool glass of lemonade gives us peace and comfort on a hot summer day; our soldiers give us peace and comfort when an enemy is preparing an attack.
3. Replace the “is…” (i.e. the predicate) of your original sentence with the new comparison.
Examples: Conscience is a continual Christmas; Conscience is a glass of ice-cold lemonade on a hot summer day; Conscience is the US Marine Corps raiding a terrorist training camp. That's a metaphor!

Literary Examples
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance. The Declaration of Independence

 The standard of good behavior for the continuance in office of the judicial magistracy, is certainly one of the most valuable of the modern improvements in the practice of government. In a monarchy it is an excellent barrier to the despotism of the prince; in a republic it is a no less excellent barrier to the encroachments and oppressions of the representative body. Federalist No. 78 by Alexander Hamilton

 But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. The Declaration of Independence

 Society in every state is a blessing, but government even in its best state is but a necessary evil.
Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 Prudence and Caution should be our Guides.  John Adams to Abigail Adams (August 28, 1774)

 I have the strongest hopes that we shall yet see a clearer sky, and better times. John Adams to Abigail Adams  (August 28, 1774)

 Did it ensure a race of good and wise men it would have the seal of divine authority, but as it opens a door to the foolish, the wicked, and the improper, it hath in it the nature of oppression. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your hearts, no recommendation of mine is necessary to fortify or confirm the attachment.  Farewell Address by George Washington

Whereas it is more than probable, that could we take off the dark covering of antiquity, and trace them to their first rise, that we should find the first of them nothing better than the principal ruffian of some restless gang. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 Thanks be to God you have just Cause to rejoice -- and may the bright Prospect be obscured by no Cloud.
John Adams to Abigail Adams (April 14, 1776)

In short, monarchy and succession have laid (not this or that kingdom only) but the world in blood and ashes. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 In absolute monarchies the whole weight of business, civil and military, lies on the king
Common Sense by Thomas Paine

That as nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office, this quality may therefore be justly regarded as an indispensable ingredient in its constitution, and, in a great measure, as the citadel of the public justice and the public security. Anti-Federalist No. 78

They serve to organize faction, to give it an artificial and extraordinary force; to put, in the place of the delegated will of the nation the will of a party, often a small but artful and enterprising minority of the community; and, according to the alternate triumphs of different parties, to make the public administration the mirror of the ill-concerted and incongruous projects of faction, rather than the organ of consistent and wholesome plans digested by common counsels and modified by mutual interests.  Farewell Address by George Washington



2. SIMILE

Definition
A simile is a comparison between two unlike things using like, as, or than.

Model
“The very mystery of him excited her curiosity like a door that had neither lock nor key.” — Gone with the Wind, by Margaret Mitchell

How To
1. Write a simple “(noun/pronoun) is… (adjective)” sentence. For example, “He is mysterious.”
2. Think of another noun that the adjective would accurately describe. For example, a book with no words is mysterious; a door with no handle is mysterious; a country without a name is mysterious; the dark side of the moon is mysterious.
3. Write a new sentence with the structure “(noun/pronoun) is like the (noun/pronoun).” For example, “He is like the dark side of the moon to me.” That's a simile!

Literary Examples
The first of September or the month of September, perhaps may be of as much importance to Great Britain as the Ides of March were to Caesar.  Abigail Adams to John Adams (August 19, 1774)

 That as nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office, this quality may therefore be justly regarded as an indispensable ingredient in its constitution, and, in a great measure, as the citadel of the public justice and the public security. Anti-Federalist No. 78

 Male and female are the distinctions of nature, good and bad the distinctions of heaven; but how a race of men came into the world so exalted above the rest, and distinguished like some new species, is worth enquiring into, and whether they are the means of happiness or of misery to mankind. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 “Thus necessity, like a gravitating power, would soon form our newly arrived emigrants into society, the reciprocal blessings of which, would supersede, and render the obligations of law and government unnecessary while they remained perfectly just to each other. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 Government, like dress, is the badge of lost innocence. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 That which, in a calm unruffled temper, we call a natural cause, seemed then like the correction of the Deity.  The Hurricane Letter by Alexander Hamilton

 An enlightened zeal for the energy and efficiency of government will be stigmatized as the offspring of a temper fond of despotic power and hostile to the principles of liberty. Federalist No. 1 by Alexander Hamilton

 But the provision is unequal to the task; the means either cannot or will not accomplish the end, and the whole affair is a felo de se; for as the greater weight will always carry up the less, and as all the wheels of a machine are put in motion by one, it only remains to know which power in the constitution has the most weight, for that will govern  Common Sense by Thomas Paine

And as a man, who is attached to a prostitute, is unfitted to choose or judge of a wife, so any prepossession in favour of a rotten constitution of government will disable us from discerning a good one.  Common Sense by Thomas Paine

If, then, the courts of justice are to be considered as the bulwarks of a limited Constitution against legislative encroachments, this consideration will afford a strong argument for the permanent tenure of judicial offices, since nothing will contribute so much as this to that independent spirit in the judges which must be essential to the faithful performance of so arduous a duty. Federalist No. 78 by Alexander Hamilton

A more egregious Bubble was never blown up, than the Story of Commissioners coming to treat with the Congress. John Adams to Abigail Adams (April 14, 1776)


3. PERSONIFICATION

Definition
Personification is giving human characteristics to objects, animals, and ideas.

Model
Prudence (i.e. wisdom) dictates that governments should not be changed for light reasons.

How To
1. Start with a sentence of this structure: “(idea/object/animal) is like a person who… (verb.)” For example, “Wisdom is like a person who gives good advice.”
2. Change the sentence so that the idea/object/animal simply does the thing a person would do. For example, “Prudence dictates that we should not rebel without good cause.” That's personification!

Literary Examples
They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. The Declaration of Independence

 He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. The Declaration of Independance

 To our sister republics south of our border, we offer a special pledge—to convert our good words into good deeds—in a new alliance for progress—to assist free men and free governments in casting off the chains of poverty.  Inaugural Address by John F Kennedy

 Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes. The Declaration of Independence

Death comes rushing on in triumph veiled in a mantle of tenfold darkness. His unrelenting scythe, pointed, and ready for the stroke.  The Hurricane Letter by Alexander Hamilton



4. RHETORICAL QUESTION

Definition
A rhetorical question is a question for which the answer should be obvious and which makes a point rather than expecting a response.

Model
“Is there a doubt whether a common government can embrace so large a sphere?” George Washington

How To
1. Write a sentence of this structure: “There is no doubt that…” For example, “There is no doubt that you are the right man for the job.”
2. Change the beginning of the sentence to “Is there a doubt that…?” For example, "Is there any doubt that he is the right man for the job?" That's a rhetorical question!

Literary Examples
How came the king by a power which the people are afraid to trust, and always obliged to check? Common Sense by Alexander Hamilton

 Why is the constitution of England sickly, but because monarchy hath poisoned the republic, the crown hath engrossed the commons?  Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 Is there a doubt whether a common government can embrace so large a sphere?  Farewell Address by George Washington

 Will it not be their wisdom to rely for the preservation of these advantages on the Union by which they were procured? Will they not henceforth be deaf to those advisers, if such there are, who would sever them from their brethren and connect them with aliens? Farewell Address by George Washington

 Why dost thou tremble and stand aghast? The Hurricane Letter by Alexander Hamilton

 Is it practicable for a country, so large and so numerous as they will soon become, to elect a representation, that will speak their sentiments, without their becoming so numerous as to be incapable of transacting public business? It certainly is not. Anti-Federalist #1 by Publius Brutus

Can it be that Providence has not connected the permanent felicity of a nation with its virtue? Farewell Address by George Washington



5. LITOTES

Definition
Litotes is a form of understatement using “not…” rather than a more conventional affirmative.

Model
I hope that you will not find my advice unprofitable.

How To
1. Write a sentence with a positive adjective. For example, “I hope that you will find my advice profitable.”
2. Change the positive adjective (i.e. “profitable”) to “not” + “un-adjective” (i.e. “profitable” = “not unprofitable”). For example, "I hope that you will not find my advice unprofitable." That's litotes!

Literary Examples
I received your kind Letter, at New York, and it is not easy for you to imagine the Pleasure it has given me.” - John Adams to Abigail Adams  (August 28, 1774)

 While, then, every part of our country thus feels an immediate and particular interest in union, all the parts combined cannot fail to find in the united mass of means and efforts greater strength, greater resource, proportionably greater security from external danger, a less frequent interruption of their peace by foreign nations; and, what is of inestimable value, they must derive from union an exemption from those broils and wars between themselves, which so frequently afflict neighboring countries not tied together by the same governments, which their own rival ships alone would be sufficient to produce, but which opposite foreign alliances, attachments, and intrigues would stimulate and embitter. Farewell Address by George Washington

 United, there is little we cannot do in a host of cooperative ventures. Inaugural Address by John F. Kennedy

 No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.  The Constitution

 The right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. The Constitution

 The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated. The Constitution

 I hope, notwithstanding the Darkness of these Days, he will not find them unprofitable Sacrifices in future. John Adams to Abigail Adams  (August 28, 1774)

 I have the consolation to believe that, while choice and prudence invite me to quit the political scene, patriotism does not forbid it. Farewell Address by George Washington

 I am unconscious of intentional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. Farewell Address by George Washington

 We here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain -- that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom -- and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. The Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln

 But a solicitude for your welfare, which cannot end but with my life, and the apprehension of danger, natural to that solicitude, urge me, on an occasion like the present, to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, some sentiments which are the result of much reflection, of no inconsiderable observation, and which appear to me all-important to the permanency of your felicity as a people. Farewell Address by George Washington

 That William the Conqueror was an usurper is a fact not to be contradicted. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 They proceed from a source not unfriendly to the new Constitution. Federalist #1 by Alexander Hamilton

 They shall at least be offered in a spirit which will not disgrace the cause of truth. Federalist #1 by Alexander Hamilton

 It not uncommonly happens, that there are two statutes existing at one time, clashing in whole or in part with each other, and neither of them containing any repealing clause or expression. Federalist #78 by A. Hamilton

… avoiding likewise the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning occasions of expense, but by vigorous exertion in time of peace to discharge the debts which unavoidable wars may have occasioned, not ungenerously throwing upon posterity the burden which we ourselves ought to bear. Farewell Address by George Washington


HYPERBOLE

Definition
Hyperbole is exaggeration for rhetorical effect. For example, “Browse, download and stream content at blazing-fast speeds” (iPhone ad). Litotes would create a different effect: “Browse, download and stream content at not unhurried (or ‘less than leisurely’) speeds.”



6. PRAETERITIO

Definition
Praeteritio is a rhetorical technique where the speaker says that he will not mention the very thing that he is mentioning.

Model
No recommendation of mine is necessary to strengthen your love of liberty. George Washington's Farewell Address

How To
1. Start with a statement that you find obvious (but your audience may not). For example, “You love liberty.”
2. Introduce the statement with a phrase like “I won’t even mention…” or “I’m not going to get into…” or “You already know…, so I don’t need to tell you about it here.” For example, "I'm won't even mention how much you all benefit from the liberty which America provides." That's praeteritio!

Literary Examples
Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your hearts, no recommendation of mine is necessary to fortify or confirm the attachment. Farewell Address by George Washington

 But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate -- we can not consecrate -- we can not hallow -- this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln

 In offering to you, my countrymen, these counsels of an old and affectionate friend, I dare not hope they will make the strong and lasting impression I could wish; that they will control the usual current of the passions, or prevent our nation from running the course which has hitherto marked the destiny of nations. Farewell Address by George Washington

 Here, perhaps, I ought to stop. Farewell Address by George Washington

 That the crown is this overbearing part in the English constitution needs not be mentioned. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

 I shall not, however, dwell upon these, as a few observations upon the judicial power of this government, in addition to the preceding, will fully evince the truth of the position. Anti-Federalist #1 by Publius

 I need not tell you of the pangs I feel, from the idea of quitting you and exposing you to the anguish which I know you would feel. Alexander Hamilton to Elizabeth Hamilton (July 4, 1804)

The considerations which respect the right to hold this conduct, it is not necessary on this occasion to detail. Farewell Address by George Washington



7. ALLUSION

Definition
An allusion makes a point by making reference to history, mythology, and literature (most frequently, to the Bible). Often, this is coupled with a metaphor or simile.

Model
The first of September or the month of September, perhaps may be of as much importance to Great Britain as the Ides of March were to Caesar. Abigail Adams to John Adams Aug. 19, 1774.

How To
1. Start by writing a sentence of the following structure: “(noun) + linking verb + (adjective).” For example, “Next year will be destructive for ISIS.”
2. Think of a reference from literature, history, or mythology to which the adjective also applies. In this case, think of “destructive” examples from literature, history, or mythology. Examples: destructive like Birnam Wood coming to Dunsinane (literature); like Sennacherib before the walls of Jerusalem (history/Bible); like the Battle of Hastings (history); like the gorgon Medusa’s stare (mythology).
3. Pick your favorite “destructive” example and use it instead of the adjective. For example, “Birnam Wood will come to ISIS next year.” That’s an allusion!

Literary Examples
She hopes you will beware that no future Annals may say you chose an ambitious Philip for your Leader, who subverted the noble order of the American Amphyctions, and built up a Monarchy on the Ruins of the happy institution. Abigail Adams to John Adams (August 19, 1774)

Yet we are told that all the Misfortunes of Sparta were occasioned by their too great Sollicitude for present tranquility, and by an excessive love of peace they neglected the means of making it sure and lasting. Abigail Adams to John Adams (August 19, 1774)

The first of September or the month of September, perhaps may be of as much importance to Great Britain as the Ides of March were to Ceaser. Abigail Adams to John Adams (August 19, 1774)

For the fate of Charles the first, hath only made kings more subtle—not more just. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

Wherefore, laying aside all national pride and prejudice in favour of modes and forms, the plain truth is, that it is wholly owing to the constitution of the people, and not to the constitution of the government that the crown is not as oppressive in England as in Turkey. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

The will of the Almighty, as declared by Gideon and the prophet Samuel, expressly disapproves of government by kings. Common Sense by Thomas Paine
Succour the miserable and lay up a treasure in Heaven. The Hurricane Letter by Alexander Hamilton

You should properly estimate the immense value of your national union to your collective and individual happiness; that you should cherish a cordial, habitual, and immovable attachment to it; accustoming yourselves to think and speak of it as of the palladium of your political safety and prosperity. Farewell Address by George Washington

And yet the same revolutionary beliefs for which our forebears fought are still at issue around the globe—the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state, but from the hand of God. Inaugural Address by John F Kennedy

 Of this I am certain that it is not founded upon that generous and christian principle of doing to others as we would that others should do unto us. Abigail Adams to John Adams (March 31, 1776)

 We knew not then whether we could plant or sow with safety, whether when we had toild we could reap the fruits of our own industery [sic], whether we could rest in our own Cottages, or whether we should not be driven from the sea coasts to seek shelter in the wilderness, but now we feel as if we might sit under our own vine and eat the good of the land.  Abigail Adams to John Adams (March 31, 1776)

You have given me some Pleasure, by your Account of a certain House in Queen Street. I had burned it, long ago, in Imagination. It rises now to my View like a Phoenix. John Adams to Abigail Adams (April 14, 1776)

See thy wretched helpless state, and learn to know thyself. The Hurricane Letter by Alexander Hamilton